Women in Ancient Egypt

Women in Ancient Egypt





Unlike the position of women in most other ancient civilizations, including that of Greece, the Egyptian woman seems to have enjoyed the same legal and economic rights as the Egyptian man - at least in theory. This notion is reflected in Egyptian art and historical inscriptions.

It is uncertain why these rights existed for the woman in Egypt but no where else in the ancient world. It may well be that such rights were ultimately related to the theoretical role of the king in Egyptian society. If the pharaoh was the personification of Egypt, and he represented the corporate personality of the Egyptian state, then men and women might not have been seen in their familiar relationships, but rather, only in regard to this royal center of society.

Since Egyptian national identity would have derived from all people sharing a common relationship with the king, then in this relationship, which all men and women shared equally, they were--in a sense--equal to each other. This is not to say that Egypt was an egalitarian society. It was not. Legal distinctions in Egypt were apparently based much more upon differences in the social classes, rather than differences in gender. Rights and privileges were not uniform from one class to another, but within the given classes, it seems that equal economic and legal rights were, for the most part, accorded to both men and women.

Most of the textual and archaeological evidence for the role of women that survives from prior to the New Kingdom pertains to the elite, not the common folk. At this time, it is the elite, for the most part, who leave written records or who can afford tombs that contain such records. However, from the New Kingdom onward, and certainly by the Ptolemaic Period, such evidence pertains more and more to the non-elite, i.e., to women of the middle and lower classes. Actually, the bulk of the evidence for the economic freedom of Egyptian women derives from the Ptolemaic Period.

The Greek domination of Egypt, which began with the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., did not sweep away Egyptian social and political institutions. Both Egyptian and Greek systems of law and social traditions existed side-by-side in Egypt at that time. Greeks functioned within their system and Egyptians within theirs. Mixed parties of Greeks and Egyptians making contractual agreements or who were forced into court over legal disputes would choose which of the two legal systems in which they would base their settlements. Ironically, while the Egyptians were the subjugated people of their Greek rulers, Egyptian women, operating under the Egyptian system, had more privileges and civil rights than the Greek women living in the same society, but who functioned under the more restrictive Greek social and legal system.

WOMEN'S LEGAL RIGHTS:

The Egyptian woman's rights extended to all the legally defined areas of society. From the bulk of the legal documents, we know that women could manage and dispose of private property, including: land, portable goods, servants, slaves, livestock, and money (when it existed), as well as financial instruments (i.e., endowments and annuities). A woman could administer all her property independently and according to her free will. She could conclude any kind of legal settlement. She could appear as a contracting partner in a marriage contract or a divorce contract; she could execute testaments; she could free slaves; she could make adoptions. She was entitled to sue at law. It is highly significant that a woman in Egypt could do all of the above and initiate litigation in court freely without the need of a male representative. This amount of freedom was at variance with that of the Greek woman who required a designated male, called a kourios, to represent or stand for her in all legal contracts and proceedings. This male was her husband, father or brother.

WOMEN'S PROPERTY RIGHTS:

There were several ways for an Egyptian woman to acquire possessions and real property. Most frequently, she received it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband, or else, she received it through purchases--with goods which she earned either through employment, or which she borrowed. Under Egyptian property law, a woman had claim to one-third of all the community property in her marriage, i.e. the property which accrued to her husband and her only after they were married. When a woman brought her own private property to a marriage (e.g., as a dowry), this apparently remained hers, although the husband often had the free use of it. However, in the event of divorce her property had to be returned to her, in addition to any divorce settlement that might be stipulated in the original marriage contract.

A wife was entitled to inherit one-third of that community property on the death of her husband, while the other two-thirds was divided among the children, followed up by the brothers and sisters of the deceased. To circumvent this possibility and to enable life to receive either a larger part of the share, or to allow her to dispose of all the property, a husband could do several things:

1) In the Middle Kingdom, he could draw up an imyt-pr, a "house document," which was a legal unilateral deed for donating property. As a living will, it was made and perhaps executed while the husband was still alive. In this will, the husband would assign to his wife what he wished of his own private property, i.e., what he acquired before his marriage. An example of this is the imyt-pr of Wah from el-Lahun. 2) If there were no children, and the husband did not wish his brothers and sisters to receive two-thirds of the community property, he could legally adopt his wife as his child and heir and bequeath all the property to her. Even if he had other children, he could still adopt his wife, so that, as his one of his legal offspring, she would receive some of the two-thirds share, in addition to her normal one-third share of the community property.

A woman was free to bequeath property from her husband to her children or even to her own brothers and sisters (unless there was some stipulation against such in her husband's will). One papyrus tells us how a childless woman, who after she inherited her husband's estate, raised the three illegitimate children who were born to him and their female household slave (such liaisons were fairly common in the Egyptian household and seem to have borne no social stigma). She then married the eldest illegitimate step-daughter to her younger brother, whom she adopted as her son, that they might receive the entire inheritance.

A woman could also freely disinherit children of her private property, i.e., the property she brought to her marriage or her share of the community property. She could selectively bequeath that property to certain children and not to others. Such action is recorded in the Will of Naunakht.

WOMEN IN CONTRACTS:

Women in Egypt were consistently concluding contracts, including: marriage and divorce settlements, engagements of wet-nurses, purchases of property, even arrangements for self-enslavement. Self-enslavement in Egypt was actually a form of indentured servitude. Although self-enslavement appears to have been illegal in Egypt, it was practiced by both men and women. To get around the illegality, the servitude was stipulated only for a limited number of years, although it was usually said to be "99 years."

Under self-enslavement, women often technically received a salary for their labor. Two reasons for which a woman might be forced into such an arrangement are:

(1) as payment to a creditor to satisfy bad debts;

(2) to be assured of one's provisions and financial security, for which a person might even pay a monthly fee, as though they were receiving a service. However, this fee would equal the salary that the provider had to pay for her labor; thus, no "money" would be exchanged. Since this service was a legal institution, then a contract was drawn up stipulating the conditions and the responsibilities of the involved parties.

In executing such an arrangement, a woman could also include her children and grandchildren, alive or unborn. One such contract of a woman who bound herself to the temple of Saknebtynis states:

The female servant (so & so) has said before my master, Saknebtynis, the great god, 'I am your servant, together with my children and my children's children. I shall not be free in your precinct forever and ever. You will protect me; you will keep me safe; you will guard me. You will keep me sound; you will protect me from every demon, and I will pay you 1-1/4 kita of copper . . . until the completion of 99 years, and I will give it to your priests monthly.'

If such women married male "slaves," the status of their children depended on the provisions of their contracts with their owners.

Mathematics at the Pharaohs

The ancient Egyptians built their system on the basis (10), and used only for the hieroglyphic signs of (1) and the number of multiples (10); such as (100), (1000). And the marks were repeated to demonstrate the complications of those numbers;, much like the Roman system of numbers.

The texts that register, or learn, the steps sports; an important source of information about ancient Egyptian mathematics. It contains some remnants of papyrus on the scales were used to calculate the fractions or to convert weights and measures. Papyrus and recorded "Ryand," a papyrus roll about 15 feet long and has written about 1660 BC, the dozens of questions sports; and answers. The fascia contains most of what is now known about the mathematics in ancient Egypt. They show that ancient Egyptians had mastered arithmetic, and developed equations to solve problems Bmjhol and unknown. They also knew the kinds of simple arithmetic and geometric sequences, were used fractions.

The ancient Egyptians knew addition and subtraction, as they knew multiplication and division; using the system to double to get the answers. They were also aware of the roots of quadratic, and calculate the area of the triangle. And used to calculate the area of a circle close to the value of the firm (i). And knew also a kind of primitive engineering; and may have known the theory of Pythagoras: As I was able to draw an arc.

In the Greco - Roman Architecture Learn the ancient Egyptians Pythagoras, Plato, and Iochled. The ancient Egyptians developed mathematics, in order to provide practical solutions to real problems. Fastkhaddmwa mathematics; in the measurement of time and the high waters of the annual flooding of the Nile River and the calculation of land areas and count the money and determine taxes. The mathematics is necessary in the service of complex engineering work to build the pyramids. And use the shop owners and chefs simple math calculations; in March, while priests and priestesses mathematics is more complicated: as well as Supervisors act on the workers and builders, surveyors, engineers, tax collectors.

PICTURES OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GODS

Universal Meaning of Celtic Knotwork
In the spring of 2003, I spent three weeks in the city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, located in Southern India. Each morning, walking before the heat of the day, I was amazed to see intricate knot work patterns drawn out free hand with flour in front of the driveways and gates of homes. These artistic scrolls, I was told by an Indian friend, were offerings to local gods, and were part of a tradition that stretched back into the ancient past. I have seen knot patterns in my travels throughout many parts of the world. In Islamic countries where iconography is prohibited, the mosques are heavily decorated with knot-like patterns. Stone-carved knot work motifs can be found on ruins from the Americas to the Hindu iconography of Bali, Indonesia. In Tibet, the eternal knot is a common symbol representing the endless cycles of existence. The knot work most familiar in the West is from Celtic iconography. Though the Celts, before the Roman Empire, were spread throughout much of Western Europe, were most familiar with their designs remaining today in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. On the moors, surrounded by winding rock walls and ancient neolithic bridges, this knot work carved in stone transcends time. We know from the writings of the Romans that the Celts believed strongly in the sacredness of place. Similar to the beliefs of many in South India today, the land anchored a particular god or goddess that was meant to be honored, though we do not know whether the knot work designs were made as offerings. The broad spectrum of knot work designs found in many cultures suggests that the motif is both universal and rooted in ancient mystery. From the most general perspective, knot work iconography can be viewed as a metaphor for our own unique tapestry of experience. On a macrocosmic level, the knots express metaphorically that life on earth is deeply interconnected, as illustrated in the Spider Womens web or the Great Hoop of Life in Native American stories. As one Native woman told me, if you move a pebble on top of a mountain, you can change the course of a mighty river. This is also expressed slightly differently in the Biblical aphorism, We reap what we sow, which is similar to the Eastern understanding of karma. Even physics today speaks of a unified field. Yet it is also true that individual elements of knots hold specific meaning from the perspective of sacred geometry. Look around you at different geometric forms. Why is the earth, our eyes, the trunks of trees circular instead of square? How does the circle function in the world verses the triangle and what does that mean in terms of knot work that uses circular patterns? Here are a few hints to help you with these blueprints. We speak of a circle of friends and live in circular cycles, such as the day and the season. Native cultures throughout the world hold ceremonies in protective circles. A knot work pattern with circles or variations of circles certainly has some important keys to relationships and community. A square knot motif concerns structure and stability, which is why buildings use the shape of a square foundation. Numerology has always played a part in ancient cultures and there are many books on the subject. The number five, for example, represents the four directions and the center point, or the five senses. We also often see knot work shaped like an oval, which is the shape of an egg. The oval has something to do with generative creativity and birth. Planets circle the sun in an oval. And if you squeeze an oval together you get the lemniscates, the symbol for infinity which is very prevalent in knot work motifs. Many knot work motifs also deal with vectors that travel in a certain direction. If you look at the shape of an arrow, its easy to understand why a triangle might connote movement. Another common motif is the knot work depicting a trinity. In the Celtic tradition, many deities had three forms. The Mother Goddess was understood to the maiden, mother and crone. The universe was viewed as heaven, earth and otherworld. We are born, we live and we die. Certainly the trinity knot also illustrates the One being dividing off into the masculine and feminine, or the mother and son-- a mystical truth contemplated in many sacred traditions. The cross is also a symbol rich in meaning. From a simple point of view, two lines crossing symbolizing a connection or meeting which can be a point of creativity. Some mystics speak of the horizontal axis representing the earthly plain, while the vertical axis points toward the heavens. While the above guide for understanding knot work is not necessarily based on any scholarly or anthropological text on the meaning of knots, it does provide a starting point that is based on a universal perspective. Most knot work designs are going to have some variation of these shapes. Spending time contemplating the motif may yield some insight. Lastly, theres an essential reason why the knot work is so prevalent, and that is beauty. I will never forget Jaisalmer, an ancient town in the desert of Rajasthan. This ancient city, where caravans used to stop and trade, is made from sandstone. Many of the buildings are carved with intricate knot work patterns. Strangers walked up to me and said, How do you like our beautiful city? I could see clearly how art is life-giving and the need for beauty is something fundamental. In the middle of the desert, the beautiful knot work in golden stone brings joy to the heart. Contributed by:
Marc Choyt
2005, Marc Choyt
Email: marek@celticjewelry.com
Website: www.artisanweddingrings.com
About The Author: Marc Choyt graduated from Brown University in 1984 with a degree in English. In 1995, he received an MA degree in Humanities from St. John's College. In 1996, he and his wife, Helen Chantler, founded Reflective Images, a designer  jewelry company specializing in contemporary Celtic jewelry. http://www.celticjewelry.com Please send email requests to marek@celticjewelry.com .
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The Children in Ancient Egypt

The life of children in ancient Egypt is very crucial because their life style is not well designed. The children in ancient Egypt is very well in their studies; they attend the school between the ages of three to fifteen. Both girls and boys are showing interest to attend the classes, both of them studied well. The education for the ancient children is in the form of mathematics, and teachers are interested to teach the mathematics. The skills like reading and writing are very improved even though there is lack of facility. Children are showing interested in various field, especially doctor field is very much liked by the children.

Some of the students show their interest on writing religious story, novels, and etc. many Egypt story are still in the practice, many religious writing explains the habit, habitat, environment, politics, agriculture, transport facility in ancient Egypt. Some children like to play games like wrestling, fighting, swimming in the river. The regular practice of Egyptian is son carry the father job when he turned to fifteen years age. Whatever may be the father’s job it should be given to the son, the jobs are like government jobs, temple jobs, and etc. girls in the ancient Egypt are turned to teach cook, household activities.

After the finishing the school, girls are compulsorily involved in the household activities. If the girl’s age is crossed 25 then she have the rights to get the fathers job, and also she have the rights in the father’s property. The marriage of the ancient Egypt is very different than other regions because they married at young. The average for the men to marriage is fifteen years and the average age for the girls to marriage is twelve years. The average life of the ancient Egyptians is forty, their life very short compare to others. The children are selecting their partner, ore lover in the age of fifteen

 

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Ancient Egypt & Ancient Egyptians - Culture and Life

If you have never read about the people and life during the ancient Egypt, then you are missing many interesting facts. The people and life during the ancient Egyptian times is very different from the lifestyle you and other’s have. Within this article, we are going to give you a run through of the ancient Egyptian people and life.

In order to gain a full understanding of the people and life during the ancient Egypt, archeologists have been looking into different sources. The archeologists have found the sources that are the most valuable are the reliefs, tomb paintings and objects that could found in the tombs. These objects are what the ancient Egyptians used in their daily life. The documents that the ancient Egyptians composed are shedding some additional light on the people and life during the ancient Egyptian times. However, remaining obscure is the day-to-day running of the Egyptian households.

What archeologists have discovered is the father was the one responsible for providing for the family. The mother is the one who watched the household and cared for the children. The Egyptian children did have toys and liked to play, but most of the children spent their time preparing themselves for adulthood. As an example, the peasant children spent a lot of their time with the parents working in the field; privileged children would often get a good formal education in order to be army officers or scribes.

Ancient Egyptians did have furniture, but it was a simple design. The most common furniture the ancient Egyptians used was a low stool. All of the ancient Egyptians used this low stool, even the pharaoh. The stools were nothing special in today’s world, they were made out of wood and had woven rush or leather seats. Most of the kitchens had cylindrical, backed clay stove. In the ancient Egyptian ages, they stored their food in wheel-made pottery. The basic cooking equipment the Egyptians used was a saucepan pottery that had two handles.

When looking at pictures of both men and women during the ancient Egyptian ages, you see both the men and the women are wearing jewelry. The jewelry consists of bracelets, anklets, earrings, beaded necklaces and anklets. One cannot fully describe what they looked like wearing this jewelry, but one word would be beautiful. The Ancient Egyptians had superstitions; therefore, their jewelry had amulets, which were good luck charms

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ANCIENT HEBREW CIVILIZATIONS

Modern scientific research is now catching up the ancient health sciences of Tai Chi & Qigong. Given that most of our illness is caused by stress, the potential benefits that these ancient solutions offer our lives is increasingly important for everyone to know about.Western medical science is only beginning to understand what Tai Chi and Qigong offers us. However, just the tiny amount of research that has been done so far indicates that Tai Chi and Qigong are very powerful health tools that can save each of us and our society a great deal of money and personal suffering.Both Tai Chi & Qigong are a combination of bio-feedback, visualization, and classical conditioning techniques that can not only provide powerful adjunct therapy for most maladies, but also can teach us tools that may head off physical illness long before it actually occurs. There is a newly emerging science of medicine known as psychoneuroimmunology, which is the study of the minds influence over the body. This new science, although new in the West has actually been practiced and refined to an extremely high level in China in the form of Tai Chi and Qigong.Although, new to Westerners, Tai Chi and Qigong are centuries or even millennia old, and in fact provide the backbone of healthcare in China today, even though China also employs all the wonders of Western medicine. Tai Chi and Qigong is a form of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and therefore based on the same principles as acupuncture and Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) herbal medicine. The premise of all Traditional Chinese Medicine, whether its acupuncture, herbal medicine, or Tai Chi and Qigong is that there is a flow of subtle energy, or bio energy, flowing through the body, and when this flow gets blocked or obstructed our health systems are diminished as a result. There are 2 ways this energy gets blocked, one by an external accident, obviously if you break your leg it will affect the way the energy flows through it. However, the most common way that energy gets blocked is by internal unmanaged stress. We know this is the most common way, because most research indicates that about 70% of all illnesses sending us to the doctor are due to stress.At www.worldtaichiday.org you can find a free Sitting Qigong exercise in the Free Lessons menu that will enable you to begin to actually feel this experience of energy and energy blockages. If you book mark it and use it daily, you will likely find a significant shift in the quality of your life.Tai Chi brings this qualitative shift to another level by physicalizing it throughout your entire body. Tai Chis motions replicate most of the motions the body is capable of performing in the normal days activities, and thereby it begins to trigger the relaxation responses of flowing life energy into the everyday tasks we perform.Again, since 70% of illness is cause by stress, this incorporation of stress cleansing techniques into the fabric of our lives can be a powerful technology for everyone to learn. These were up until recently ancient secrets of China, but today are available to people worldwide who take the time to learn them.
About The Author: Bill Douglas is the Tai Chi Expert at DrWeil.com , Founder of World T'ai Chi & Qigong Day (held in 50 nations each year), and has authored and co-authored several books including a #1 best selling Tai Chi book The Complete Idiots Guide to Tai Chi & Qigong. Bills been a Tai Chi source for The Wall Street Journal, New York Times, etc. You can learn more about Tai Chi & Qigong, and also contact Bill Douglas at http://www.worldtaichiday.org
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Please don't treat this as an average piece of writing on Ancient Hebrew Civilizations. A lot of effort and hard work has been put to get this end product!

Astronomy at the Pharaohs

Astronomy was very important to the ancient Egyptians, who observed the sky periodically. The astronomers named what they saw in the sky, and used their observations to create the Egyptian calendar. And was the beginning of the year when the ancient Egyptians declare with the arrival of water flooding of the Nile; They observed that the flood comes with the emergence of star Sirius, the brightest stars in the sky (to the south). The incident represented the beginning of the agricultural year in Egypt. Formed that year of 365 days; divided into twelve months, each in thirty days. They made the remaining five days (days postponing) Birthdays days added to the end of the year. Months of the year as divided into three seasons: the flood season, the planting season, and the harvest season. The ancient Egyptians recorded by the king assumed power in the country and documents; starting day of year, the season, month and day.
The ancient Egyptians used equipment or reagents, to monitor the polar star; They would then draw the center line north to the south; on the ground, to determine the direction and location of the star. A step that was necessary for the proper orientation of important building projects. It was one of those devices called "Mrecht," which can mean "revealing indicator." It consists of a narrow wooden bar with a hole in one end; astronomer would look through it, to fix the position of the star. There is another device called the "bay Emmy Onott", which means the rib (cranium) Palm. And the device slot or incision figure 7, made at the wider end; a hole through which the priest in charge of tracking hours, in order to be able to locate the star.
In the Ptolemaic era, Claudius Ptolemy, an astronomer and mathematician, and geographer, studying data left behind by his predecessors; to map the sites of about a thousand stars. He compiled a list of 48 groups with an asterisk (towers), and a description of latitude and longitude of the planet. He believed that the earth is the center of the universe, and work to advance this theory. The further development of the Ptolemaic system; to explain why some planets seemed to move backwards for periods of time, in their orbits around the Earth. It was assumed that each planet has a rotation in a smaller rotation last in a larger circle, which is called the "epicycle." The theory that prevailed for about 1400 years ago, proved that the earth's rotation itself in orbit around the sun.

In the Greco-Romans used a calendar based on the accounts of the Julian calendar, which was adopted on a leap year. And the adoption of the Copts in Egypt that calendar; to follow the sun and calculate the days, seasons, and solar years. The lunar year is also important, as was used to determine the date of Easter Holiday; and other important religious holidays. As the Ptolemaic era also saw the invention of the astrolabe; a navigational tool that was perfected in the era of succession and the mandate of the rulers of the Muslims. The astrolabe played an important role in guiding ships; whether for military or commercial purposes.

Social Sciences at the Pharaohs

Interested in sociology and the performance of institutions of human societies, and the relationship of individuals to society; factors including social, psychological and economic. And sometimes falls history and the study of human races (anthropology), under the classification of the social sciences. The meeting did not begin the study of science only at the end of the nineteenth century, but scientists and writers since the time of the ancient Egyptians had their observations and their visions of civilizations and societies; and wrote historical events. And understanding of the ancient Egyptians built the first community on the basis of the system and prosperity; obey Pharaoh and the observance of "Maat", or justice and balance. And the ancient Egyptian texts describe the social significance of the rules, principles and standards and their relation to class and rank, and they believe that if the poor received a fortune; you will not be such a blessing and a pond - but a curse and guide the occurrence of the defect.

And the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the teachings and guidelines for ethical conduct and behavior inherited from the pharaohs, princes and ministers to their children; in the form of generally known under the name of "wisdom literature". And provided the basis of those texts advice on how to get to senior positions, and prosperity. It also stimulated the virtues and tranquility, humility, modesty and restraint. In an era of transition (decay) first, the era of unrest, difficult, it seems that the book "the teachings of King Mercara" have been written by Governor was engaged in the transfer of the course curriculum True; despite the pessimism of the natures of treason and treachery among the humans. In the era of the modern state, the clerks usually are the ones who produce the wisdom literature; directed to a broad general audience.

Wisdom literature and served as a guide also mentions a legal manner in which the Pharaohs followed their predecessors in office; from the reality of similar cases. While the law has been issued at the end of the pharaoh, the legal precedent was of particular importance when the ancient Egyptians. Indicate manuscripts relating to judicial cases across several eras, that the records of proceedings (proceedings) may have been kept for long periods of time.

The scribes documented the many aspects of their community; because they needed the information to make them competent administrators. And keep records clerks and short accounts and certificates, inventories, legal documents and data availability to work and wages paid. And includes other documents that were found; regulations and court proceedings and records of private contracts, loans and financial arrangements between spouses, inheritance and taxes. And give the papyri that were found in some pyramids, a list of priests who are offering the service and records, accounts and inventories. As students, the scribes who were copying the texts of varied and were dealing with in this vocabulary with the foreign varieties in trade with the religious feasts; in addition to literary texts, and mathematics.

The ancient Egyptians only a few historical novels. And gives the stone "Palermo", which dates back to the era of the old state; statement kings of the Old and pre-dynastic period, and levels of annual flooding, and the dates of military campaigns and trade missions, and other important events. And began to appear about the Twelfth Dynasty, literary works in praise of kings; is closer to propaganda, including the exact description, and glorify the achievements of the king. The "Law of Tyurin," which dates back to the modern state, a list of other kings.

I have visited "Herodotus" - which some see as the first historian in the world of Egypt in the fifth century BC; described the geography of the nation (population distribution), and the Nile, and a lot of Egyptian antiquities. He also described the ethics and temperament and habits of the Egyptians. In the third century BC by a priest named "Manitou" no history of Egypt, based on old records; was found only a few excerpts from that work.

He wrote the Roman world, "Strabo" of Egypt in his book "Geography";, describing the Romanian government and Romanian military and the Romanian legislation, as well as the social conditions under the rule of "Augustus": around the year 22 BC. The book describes the early Christians beliefs and social customs of Egypt; especially for religion. But that was mainly a tool to expose the falsity, and not as a means to achieve a better understanding of them.

The eminent Muslim scholars cover a lot of topics that relate to the performance of society in Egypt. And describes Maqdisi, scientists from the tenth century; residents and community groups, food, clothing, dialects, trade, currency and political situation in Egypt - among other countries. In the description was intended to be a guide for traders, travelers, and intellectuals; commented on the use of a measure of the Nile in flood levels compared to the previous years, and the low prices of commodities in Cairo. In the fourteenth century left of the Tunisian Ibn Khaldun for his country intending to Egypt; where he spent the rest of his life. Attributed to Ibn Khaldun lead; that was the first scientist to come out - in a systematic, scientific theory about the social, economic, psychological and religious impact on societies and human history.

Hydrology at the Pharaohs

To ensure the availability of adequate water for their crops, ancient Egyptians had reached to the means by which they could be handled with seasonal flooding, which took about six months; agricultural land which becomes completely submerged by water. That is why farmers dig irrigation canals and storage basins created which was held by building small dams; for the delivery of water to distant lands and do not reach the high flood waters. As they were transporting water in two buckets; pendant from the yoke carried on the shoulders. He invented the pallets, for the same purpose, in the era of the modern state. It consists of the pallets in place a long wooden Ttzn based on a column or head, or stuck in a wooden frame. Can Shadouf to move to a central top and bottom; or from side to side. In use; pull factor applicable to the bottom, in order to fill the bucket with water: Verwah weight balance automatically to where the agent can empty it in the irrigation canal. This has helped to irrigate the upland; which contributed to increased crop yields.
Sakia tool and other tools of irrigation in ancient Egypt; and consists of a large number of small containers installed in the wheel of a round (wheel) is linked to the branch linked to the cow (an animal) runs a branch that runs the wheel (wheel): turn. And continued use of waterwheel in the Ptolemaic period, and then developed after that, during this period and the governors of the successors of the Muslims.
During his stay in Alexandria, Archimedes invented the Greek world machine mandolins; They are also known under the name of the "Archimedes screw." Mandolins and consists of a wooden spiral disk surrounded Mcqhob (slotted). When placed in the bottom water and administered mandolins; cause the snails to raise water to higher levels.
The collection of taxes on crops in the Ptolemaic period, by order of the governors; on the basis of levels of flooding. To determine the water levels, officials used a portable tool known as the "scale of the Nile"; was probably a long stick of bamboo (jungle) grazed by signs of different levels. The temples were built that provided the standards of the Nile, at sites along river.
After the Islamic conquest of Egypt, kings and sultans of several projects; to dig canals and dams; for the delivery of water of the Nile: for use in agriculture and drinking purposes. When built the Sultan Saladin walls around Cairo; surfaces were used as conduits for water. And transferred water from these channels, through the pipes of pottery, for the supply of housing the water that was distributed to the kitchens and baths and basins. And established the Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad channel carry large amounts of flowing water, and four of the channels. The function Sakka important functions in the era of the caliphs and governors of Egypt's Muslim. The allantoic the person responsible for the transfer of water from reservoirs; to mosques, schools and public drinking fountains. As was the case with the governors in the Greco - Roman, the Muslim governors also decided to assess the taxes collected from farmers: based on the level of the Nile flood. They also used a measure of the Nile, and appointed to that on the island of kindergarten staff in charge of registration of the water level every day, according to gauge the Nile island

Engineering

Ancient Egyptians had the ability to complete sophisticated engineering projects; such as Al-Ahram massive and huge temples, using primitive tools. They developed ways to cut stones and the transfer of massive stone blocks and put them in position of the building. Pyramids were built on a perfectly horizontal base;, aligned with the positions of the stars.

The builders, engineers and construction workers use parts of their bodies as a measure of length. The basic unit is the "arm";, the distance from the elbow to the top of the middle finger. Despite the differences in the size of various body parts of workers;, this system was fine for small projects. The royal cubit, length 5.52 cm (6.20 inches) as the standard for building temples and pyramids; as requiring the greatest accuracy. And use the engineers, surveyors, construction workers, equipment and instruments to observe the stars and orient the structures according to the four directions, and to draw fine lines and right angles.

There are several theories regarding how the ancient Egyptians created the pyramids on a flat base completely. According to Early Egyptologists that the ancient Egyptians were the first cut a network of shallow ditches (surface) in the rock foundation; Gmroha then water, and was still brighter than the increases above the level of "islands" of water; to achieve a flat base rock exactly. The modern belief, he says that the ancient Egyptians were satisfied to ensure the full equator - as much as possible - for the sectors are distributed around the edges of the base of the pyramid.

The massive stone blocks were cut from quarries located relatively close to the construction projects. The limestone quarries are the most common and widespread; areas close to the Giza and Saqqara, Dahshur, and Granite was brought from quarries in Aswan. Stone blocks were planned spaces, including allowing workers to stand. Has not been found so far on the flyers or drilling equipment, but tomb paintings give some information about the techniques used in cutting and polishing boulders (blocks), limestone or granite. Where, workers used copper saws and drills and shovels and chisels and hammers for granite. It was easy to hard rock destruction of brass instruments, but it is believed that the workers were overcome by placing sand in the cracks between the stone and tools; which increases the capacity of the cutting tools, sharp sand crystals.

After the cut, the stones, they were transported by the Nile, above the large wooden barges; then transported to the site on large wooden sledges pulled by oxen or hundreds of workers. The sledges were pulled along a path made slick with a layer of Nile mud or wet sand; making it easier to move heavy blocks. The ancient Egyptians used several different types of runways (Causeways), internal and external to the pyramid; in order to drag the huge stones into place. They probably used levers to move the wooden or bronze.

To raise the obelisks, the largest of which weighed about 500 tons, the ancient Egyptians were the first living Coma (fragments) of high sand or rubble near the site where the obelisk. Then withdraw the needle horizontally to the top of the rubble; with the face of the base foundation. It was built around the foundation stone content box is similar to the Fund; filled with sand. And the needle was withdrawn, in order to stabilize the sand; then the workers begin to remove the sand from the slot at the bottom of the Stone Fund. And unloading of the Fund out of the sand, moving slowly inside the obelisk; even stands.

Arts and Crafts

Associated with the ancient Egyptian arts such as sculpture, painting, sculpture, closely related to architecture. None of them were independent art, but were used to decorate temples and tombs. This has greatly affected the features of these arts, their themes, and ways to use them. And when depicting ancient Egyptian artist hereafter as Eternity and eternal pleasure, this concept was a source of inspiration for his work. His objective was not to emphasize the beauty of the art form and prominent to the viewer, because these works of art were in the tombs are closed. The ancient Egyptian artist deep perception of life, he tried to portray in symbolic forms reflect the principles and values prevailing in society; such as the gods and the king and the rights of women and the family, etc..
When Alexander the Great came to Egypt, Egyptian art blended with Greek art and the adoption of methods of color and movement. Was also influenced by the themes of Greek mythology. The human body had a big role in that art. Portraits and sculptures portrayed the features of the human body in great detail; reflect the movement of the body through Urdu wavy, in a serious attempt to simulate reality. And continued that method to the first century AD, known as Hellenistic art.
While interest in simulating the movements of Hellenistic art, colors, and features of nature, the Muslim artist was quite far from the tradition of nature; as this is not the object or subject of interest. Instead, it focused on Muslim artist shapes, animal and plant engineering; giving the impression that the portrayal of humans was forbidden in Islam, although there is no explicit text of the Koran. Its strong aesthetic appeal transcends distances in time and space, language, culture and creed. Among the features of that art, were abstract and consistency and try to adopt the mathematical rules that govern the universe; this, besides being a year, global and inclusive: as it came during the era of brief immersion in tidal Arab vast areas and many cultures, from India to the Atlantic Ocean. Thus it was natural that art to accommodate diverse cultures of these great civilizations; among which is the ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Phoenician, and the Sassanid Algartajip, Greek and Byzantine. Have merged these diverse cultures in the artistic and cultural wealth and the nations that embraced Islam. And could be included techniques that prevailed in the Muslim countries culturally, historically under the method of the Umayyad, Abbasid, and the method which has been associated by the Abbasid state in 750 AD. And weakened when the Abbasid Caliphate, there were regional styles; patterns such as the Persian, Fatimid, Mamluk, Ottoman and Indian.

Osiris and Isis

Osiris

The God who suffered from the evils to death, is in the form of a man without identification of the members of his body. Wearing the crown of "Atef" and caught his right hand on the stick and sponsor Pisarh on a stick "Alennkk" became the ruler of the mortal world. Since the early Abydos became the most important center of worship. The city of "Iozyres" (in the south-west) of the city Smto (in the Delta), the first areas hit by the.
Months, Egyptian gods, symbolized by his king mummified and on the crown of Upper Egypt, is beset with two feathers a symbol of justice Egyptians believed that he has the ability to provide them with life, and continued to worship about two thousand years and spread his temples along the Mediterranean, according to legend the famous suffered of treachery and death at the hands of his brother's idol (six), who wants to get rid of him to marry his wife, the goddess (Isis), thanks to which he was able to return to life, and thus provided for mankind eternal life, was in the first Idol Representative of fertility, and then became then god the other world and guarantor of the Baath to humans, and I like all the king After his death Palmabboud (Osiris) to guarantee him another life




Children of Horus

Sons of Horus are "Imsety and Habi and Duamutef and Qebehsenuf" They are guarded by "Osiris during the embalmed and then guarding the visceral vessels and four representing the four corners of the world"





Isis

Sister and wife of the god "Osiris", the mother of the god "Horus" and woven by the many dangers of which played an important role goddess witch and cure of diseases. Represented as a woman carrying a sign "throne" on her head, and sometimes wear a crown for two centuries, the sun disk between them, and took the forms and manifestations of different gods. Cult spread in Europe since the Greco-Roman period.



A statue of Osiris, Isis, sitting on the throne

A statue of Osiris, Isis, sitting on the throne. Osiris beard and images directly related to the ownership of the statue, and puts on the crown of the head, "Atef" by the partial fracture; Pray adorned royal cobra. He is holding the scepter has survived; a symbol of the dignity and sublimity and dignity, sovereignty and ownership.

Osiris as it appears in the form of a mummy, which does not see anything but your hands. Isis and sit next to him wearing a tripartite wig decorated with a sun disk between the horns of a cow. She is wearing a long tight dress Tank interlace up to ankle; and simplify her left hand on her knee, and put her hand right on the right shoulder of Osiris.

And no formula Eucharist traditional aspects of the throne, although they differ in length; and prays to Isis, "the mother of the great god" Osiris "the Lord Almighty."

The reign of King Khufu Egypt for about twenty-three years from 2574 to 2550 BC, during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. It's Great Pyramid at Giza, which is the first of the seven wonders of the world and only complete the wonders of the ancient world that still exists even now.

It was the first building layers of stones on a low mound in the middle of the area that was left unpaved and was incorporated into the structure of the pyramid. The mound serves as the heart of the pyramid and reduced the amount of masonry required. The original entrance of the pyramid is 16.8 meters or 55.1 feet above ground level and opens on the north side to face the polar star, where the living spirit of the king in the afterlife. The length of each side of the ribs constituting the base of about 230.38 meters or 755.65 feet. A building of 210 layer was left of which only 201.

The original height of the pyramid, including its peak is 146.5 meters or 480.5 feet, but he is now about 137.2 meters or 450 feet, and the angle of aspects about 51 and 50 degrees. Was found on the coffin and pyramid blank when you open the pyramid in the ninth century.

Museum boat of King Khufu

 

 

South of the eastern side of the pyramid is a modern building containing a compound that was discovered in 1954 AD.

It made a huge royal boat of cedar wood, has been found in disarray in the hole which is one of the largest vessels that have been found in Egypt so far.

On the front deck of the boat, there is no umbrella, covers the central part of the framework of a canopy. The rear portion of the deck of the boat, there are by the main cabin, in the form of a roof supported by columns of palm trees.

For the boat a pair of oars to steer the rudder, and five pairs of oars for the conduct of the compound, and a length of about 43.3 meters or 142.02 feet, and a width of about 5.90 meters or 19.35 feet and a height of about 5 meters or 16.4 feet at the front of the boat and 7 meters or 23 feet at the stern.

The boat used to transport the king's funerary furniture. While some boats are made as models, it is clear that this compound has already used also shows the marked contraction of the remaining ropes.

Architectural elements of a Pyramid

Pyramids were usually built within a funeral includes several facilities. The enclosure wall was mostly built of mud brick and embraces the whole group.

The Valley Temple is the main entrance to a reception area for the king of the neighborhood when he came to inspect the work, as it was performed funerary rites for the deceased king; and perhaps also being his mummification.

The causeway connecting the valley temple and the mortuary temple, and the roof is open in this way earlier pyramids and was often covered in subsequent times by the roof of a rectangular slot in the middle to let a little light.

The final religious rites for the deceased king performed in the mortuary temple and cult shrines; before his body was moved to its burial inside the pyramid.

The pits were holes in the ground to include boats that were used in the transfer of the royal body and the funerary furniture; after that lifted and stacked inside the drill, to be used by the king in the hereafter - wandered in the world of the dead: or accompanied the sun god.

The king was the deceased buried pyramid - any cemetery property; either inside or underneath it.

It was built as a royal tomb or monument, and did not have any other use.

Ancient Egyptian Queens Solitary Governing

A few queens who are only Anfredn governance in Egypt in ancient times.

This was usually occurs after the death of their husbands; at a time when the Left their sons or husbands under the age of governance.

Queens took over the rule in such cases and as "King of Upper and Lower Egypt"; which was not accepted by the ancient Egyptians, by virtue of tradition.

Following their deaths, the names and achievements erased from memory as it was wiped off the effects. And usually marked changes in the reigns of the ruling families.

The list of queens celebrities both Solitary Governing From: Nate iqeret or Nitocris, Sobek Navarro, Hatshepsut, and Tausert. Perhaps Nate iqeret Nitocris or widow of the last kings of the Sixth Dynasty, ruled for a very short period.

Sobek also sentenced Navarro after the death of her husband, King Amenemhat IV, at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty.

Hatshepsut was the greatest female ruler; long history of ancient Egypt. Has ruled the country after the early death of her husband Tuthmosis II, one of the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty, for about twenty years; in partnership with the beginning of Tuthmosis III, the son of her husband, then alone.

The Tausert, she was the widow of Seti II; the last king of the Nineteenth Dynasty.

Amun

Amun is the king of the gods, which appeared in the old state as a member of the Group of Eight Alohmonyen employers. The religion emerged with the political greatness of Thebes.
And became in the Middle Kingdom king of the gods in all parts of Egypt, and Mr. Temples of Karnak. The form of Amun with the death of his wife and their son Khonsu, god of the moon, trinity of good, ie the Holy Family to the people of Thebes. The festival is held yearly to celebrate the marriage of Amun and Mut.

Amun is the king of gods and its president, and occupied a prominent place among the gods when Almsrienolh many implications in the history of Egyptian civilization, his name appeared in the Fifth Dynasty under (Matteawan Al-Ahram), and the meaning of the name of the (hidden), symbolized by a man sitting on a throne and on his head two feathers two long to fry red and green above the crown is sometimes the sun appears (Amun) in the city (good) in the Central State, increased strength when taken by the Kings, who chased (Hyksos) symbol to them, became the most important god in the state, and even worshiped the world of the Egyptian empire in the era of the modern state and has increased the influence of priests and their wealth increased, making some of the kings of resent that, as happened in the era of (Akhenaten) and I have kept god (Amon) national stature among the gods

 

Amun, Amen-Ra / Amon

God is "hidden" "The Hidden One.", Appears in the form of a man wearing a crown surmounted by two feathers, and take the form of God, "Min" in many cases, as well as the image of the ram or goose. First appeared worship was in the territory of Thebes, is one of the members of the Thamon Ashmunein, then became the idol official of the empire of modern, and the title "King of the Gods" and merged with the senior gods and became "Amun - Ra" "Amon - Maine," and "Amon - Khanom"

Seated statue of the god Amun
The statue depicts the god Amun seated on a throne wearing his crown has been traditional, consisting of two feathers and the sun disk between them.
Amon and puts his left hand unfolded on his thigh while holding in his right hand the sign of life ankh, wearing a kilt property named shendyt.
This was the statue as a doctrine that features sculpted art, especially the eyes, eyebrows, which may have been inlaid with semiprecious stones.

God of healing and medicine Roman Asclepius

Erosion statue of Asclepius the god of healing and medicine in the Roman less than human size, as it is in place, turning slightly to the right a full face and was naked. The snake of Asclepius Vmentsb along with his right foot and Asclepius mustache and a beard, wearing a himation Greek, descending dress as a rectangle on the left shoulder and around the body, and frizzy hair, eyebrows was filmed at a height of between Tattiya Lord of the healing power of spirituality.

Dimensions Height 114 cm

God is the ancient Egyptians

God is the ancient Egyptians

Abdul ancient Egyptians multiple gods, and their God is Great "Ra" the sun god, which is relied upon and the goddess "Rinoti" goddess of the harvest and the symbol of sovereignty in increased yields. And Isis, which represents motherhood and faithful wife - the most important goddesses. And Osiris - her husband and her brother grazing germination and the Kingdom of the dead. And Horus is the son of Osiris and Azis, who is described as the God of heaven. For example, the people of Memphis, Abdel Ilah "Ptah," patron of craftsmen and the goddess Sikhmit Nvertom and their son. And most of the ancient Egyptians used to pray to their gods in the house and not in the temples. And each temple was a house for a certain trust in the God of his service to the priests, who lives praying to God at the request of citizens

Tut ankh amun

Tut ankh amun

Not scientists know a lot about Tutankhamun before the discovery of his tomb on 26 of the month of November 1922 and Tutankhamun is one of the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty is likely to be the son of Akhenaten, his name at birth was Tutankhamun's roar, but the last section of the name change to be " Amon "After returning to the old religion and the worship of the god Amun as the greatest. Pharaoh remained for nearly ten years until he died in around 1250 BC. After years of archaeological work masterpieces unearthed the tomb of Tutankhamun and the transfer of most of the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo. Today it is a lot of exposure in museums around the world

Akhenaten

When the accession of King Amenhotep IV began an era of revolution, religious and cultural rights in Egypt. I have distanced himself from the worship of the god old Amon and his priests, and the adoption clinic sun disk Aten, and declared that the furnace is the one God with the exception of Ra, which is part of the sunlight of the god Amun. He also announced he is the only one who can speak with a furnace, but this does not need the presence of priests, and changed his name to Akhenaten from Amonhtib server, which means furnace. In the end, ban the worship of the god Amun, closed the temples of the Holy. In the sixth year of the reign of Akhenaten and his beautiful wife Nefertiti, Queen of the transfer of capital from Thebes to a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaten - approved furnace - the Tel el-Amarna current. Akhenaten and money to the attribution of the rule of the country to follow the others to devote to the exercise of religious interests. When he died, and died with him religious changes and returned Egypt to the traditional gods and priests

Ramses

Ramses the oldest

The Egyptians were led by their king, Ramses the great bulk of them much stronger. Publicized accounts of many of the pharaoh Ramses II and his battles against the Hittites on the Egyptian border in Syria. In his youth participated Ramses father Seti I in his wars against the Hittites, and learn from him how to be a successful governor. Witnessed the first period of the reign of Ramesses the ongoing war with the Hittites. But when he realized he was the commander of the two countries, there will be no real victor of the peace offenses. Still remain and the peace treaty can be seen today carved on the walls of the Temple of Karnak. Was the greatest work of the two great temples of Ramses Structural, who carved at the foot of Mount Abu Simbel in Nubia. And largest temples sitting on the façade of four huge statues of the king, a rise of 18 meters. And when he died of Ramses II in a ninety-Amra was buried in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes

Saqqara and Abydos

Memphis became the capital of the unified state. This status made it very rich and also made the staff of the royal court official who controlled the production and imports in the new state is very rich. This wealth enabled this footnote to build the graves of its members sing. This cemetery - which claims the cemetery was built in the Terrace area in the cemetery of Saqqara, which overlooks the city of Memphis. The burial chamber is located in every cemetery in the middle under the earth carved from the rock, and filled with broken stones after being buried in the body. The cemetery is divided into several rooms or rooms to accommodate all the items needed by the deceased in the afterlife. After the completion of all procedures established for burial, the cemetery covers Bmstmladtha ceiling are not allowed to enter. Unfortunately, the majority of the bishop home easy for thieves to enter the cemetery to the extent that most of the terraces at Saqqara, including all their contents were looted in the last issue. The town of Abydos - which lies 97 kilometers north of the city of Luxor, the current - a holy place else. They are the official final resting place of the god Osiris was probably the tombs of the kings of ancient Egypt as well. In any case, it is believed some Egyptologists that Lapidus was only a repository for the Kings, while the effects of Saqqara is the seat of the actual burial Saqqara and Abydos

Ancient egyptians and astronomy

Egyptians began the study of stars since the very early period in their history. They were one of the first astronomers, and became the temple of the sun god at Heliopolis an important center for the study of astronomy. Was associated with astronomy when the ancient Egyptians is closely linked to the process of forecasting Bmoakit. They developed a calendar year divided the year into 365 days and divided also the day and night into 24 hours in spite of the change the length of day and night according to the seasons and the Egyptians were the first of the peoples that starts with the timing of today have midnight. And enter the leader of the Roman Julius Caesar, the Julian calendar, which divides the year to 365 days with the calculation of the fourth year a leap year every four years. And adopted in this on his contacts with the Egyptians and astronomy scientists Arsadhm by the overseers in Egypt. This calendar has been in effect that the solution to the locality in 1582 by the calendar last modified slightly and is called the Gregorian Calendar

Hatshepsut: the most famous queen of ancient Egyptian

Hatshepsut was the sister-sister and wife of Tuthmosis II. When this king died in office from a number of boy

and his son Thutmose III, Hatshepsut, but continued to dominate the power in the country as a testament to the throne. I enjoyed her life of Hatshepsut: The Queen and Pharaoh sent ships in the business tasks to bring exotic goods. When Hatshepsut ruled as king love her name removed and scraped off all forms of evidence and consequences in the Kingdom. Perhaps its claim to be King - and not just the Queen - is the cause of confusion in the concepts about the sanctity of the Egyptian Pharaoh King. But the unique temple built in her honor stands witness to its age

The sacred scarab in Ancient Egypt

"The sacred scarab in Ancient Egypt"

Scarab or scarab or Abu scarab (in English: Dung beetle) is a beetle dung is an insect black habits boosting the carrion and filth, dung (Waldman) and lay their eggs in and rolling in front and gathered in the hole and then to feed them, the color of color coal Alontra_it and called the ancient Egyptian name Brrbr That is to say (come into being to take a specific image), then became the sense of (a) or (become). Kheprer, and when the advent of writing used to write the word image is a complex act Among the images of alien saved in the Valley of the Kings, beetle huge black out of the sand drag ball glowing, and explains Bleutark all of this without away on what appears on the interpretation of the Egyptian says: (As for the beetle scarab Valmatkd that do not have a female and all the scarabs males, brings to both seed in grain of material to make the ball and drag their feet and paid Rahaohy background Simulated doing this the ecliptic from east to west). Egyptian scarabs were used for public purposes, was Kalokhtam seals and cylindrical seals which buttons on the image of animals and huge gold rings, and if you put a seal or lobes of the contract could be sealed by the seals pots, speeches, and latches against the futility of robbers. As they were carrying Ktmaim protective cheap, as I hid this insect in itself a renewal of her constantly, produced thousands of scarabs quickly and industry jagged botched often, and the inscriptions on which are written poorly, so it became necessary to extract the scarabs from the digging to make sure it is genuine not false . This is still sold in the simple areas of the Mediterranean Sea since ancient times Egyptian reminiscences more common, and despite finding thousands of scarabs in the mounds and cemeteries counterfeiting is still at its peak is a need to fill standing orders. Ranges along the scarabs made of solid stone, such as silicate magnesium soap polished, or limestone or faience, between 1 cm to 10 cm, and ranges form of natural to semi-scarab and beetle which are inscribed the wings engraved clear to the scarab-headed ram, and often What sculptured abdomen or the flat side of the scarab, either in writing or fees depending on the intended purpose of the scarab, many of the scarabs were seals bearing the name of the employee and his titles, and engraved on one wishes (such as Happy New Year for SMB) or the government, such as: (peace of mind is better than anger (f) Amon power only) and a large number of them bears the names of ownership inscribed for the qualities expressed by the thus expressed the first name (from the News-Re) of Thutmose III the Great and the literal meaning (perhaps to continue Ra in bringing life) on the meaning of the code scarab fully express so that he wrote on many of the small things until the late era. Ancient Egyptian scarabs issued the same way that the historical issue of commemorative medals, and includes small group followed by the name of the king the title indicates the work and bear the largest group on the flat side of the scarabs big news is short. And fees are inscribed on scarabs are numerous and include ornate decoration Zdzajip and cyclones and other charges include signs and protective sometimes disguised as some puzzles and pictures of gods and kings, and sometimes a fee is a corresponding real and sacred animals. Can also determine the date of the ground layer archaeological by scarabs at the lack of any other evidence, if found coated with what some of the scarabs was able expert study that resolves the symbols and secrets as it does an expert coins and medals the old, and really fun to infer the life of Egypt's economic, social and religious scarabs alone. A large number of scarabs big heart made mostly of solid stone or faience and is bordered by wings of hawks talismans funeral private, and were placed between the folds of coffins, the dead or dimpling of the jewelry chest, were often embossed in paragraph thirty of the Book of the Dead, which shows the behavior expected the magic of the heart during the celebration of th e weight of the heart: (any of my heart, Iaoovy part of my being does not stand a witness against me in court for you .... God is located in my body, my God and my body to the Governor).

what is archaeology

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What is Archaeology?

Archaeology.


The scientific study of the last remnants of human civilization.


And archaeologists investigating the life of ancient peoples, by examining their waste. These include such things as waste: the buildings and artifacts, tools, bones and pottery. The archaeologists have been exciting discoveries, such as the discovery of the tomb filled with gold jewelry, or the remnants of the Temple of luxury in the middle of the jungle. However, the discovery of a few stone tools or charred seeds of grain, perhaps unveils better for many aspects of the life of these peoples. And discover the types of food that people eat in ancient times, it makes us aware of the similarities between the lives of those people and our present. What is found by the archaeologist, ranging from large monuments and the end grain, which contributes to an image of features of life in ancient societies.




The Archaeological Research Assistant is the only way to interrogate aspects of life in the communities that existed before the invention of writing five thousand years ago. The archaeological research in itself constitutes an important tributary to the enrichment of our knowledge of ancient societies that left written records.

The Archaeology in the Americas, a branch of anthropology (Anthropology); a study of the human race and its heritage of intellectual and physical. In the opinion of archaeologists in Europe that their work is closely linked to the field of history, archeology, however, differs from the science of history on the one hand, historians are studying, mainly the march of peoples based on written records.

Archaeologists looking forward to see how they evolved civilizations, and to know the time and place where this development occurred. As well as those looking just like Darcy social sciences on the causes of the fundamental changes that made the people in the ancient world, stop fishing, for example, are turning to agriculture. Other archaeologists and develop theories about the reasons that drove people to build cities and establish trade routes. In addition, some archaeologists looking for the underlying causes behind the fall of previous civilizations, the Maya civilization in Central America, and Roman civilization in Europe.

What do archaeologists study?
Archaeologists examine any evidence that can help them understand the lives of people who lived in ancient times. Range from archaeological evidence of the remnants of a big city, and the lack of split (cut) stones, left by one who were making stone tools since long times.

The three basic types of archaeological evidence are: 1 - Findings made 2 - phenomena 3 - Findings natural. As for the Findings made, it is the man-made materials and can be transferred from one place to another without a change to their appearance. It includes items such as arrowheads and pots and beads. It can also include in relation to a society with a date written on clay tablets and other written records. The phenomena consist mainly of houses, tombs, irrigation canals, and many other facilities, built by ancient peoples. Unlike the tools, it can not separate phenomena from its surroundings, without a change in shape. The Findings of natural, they are natural substances that are found side by side with tools and phenomena. Findings reveal the way people interact in ancient times with their surroundings. Findings include natural, for example, seeds and animal bones.

And refers to the place, which includes the directory name of the archaeological archaeological site. To understand the behavior of the people who occupied the archaeological sites, we have to study the relations between instruments made and natural phenomena and Findings, which was discovered at the archaeological site. For example, the discovery of the heads of spears stone near the bones of extinct type of water buffalo at a site in the state of New Mexico, shows that these early human groups, the buffalo hunt in that region.

How archaeologists gather information?
Archaeologists used techniques and special means for the collection of archaeological evidence collectively accurate, systematic, and keep detailed records on the Findings of archaeological, because the detailed archaeological excavation damage the archaeological remains in question.

Location:
Determine the archaeological site is the first step, which must archaeologist to do. And may be of archaeological sites exist on the earth's surface, may also be under the surface of the earth, or under water. Include sites that are under water on the sunken ships, or entire cities flooded as a result of changes in the Earth's surface or at water level.

May be to identify some of archaeological sites easily, because they see with the naked eye, or can be traced through the descriptions received and reported in ancient stories, or other historical records. And include such sites in Pyramids of Egypt, and the city of Athens in ancient Greece. There are archaeological sites, is less clear was discovered by chance people who are not archaeologists, for example, found four children in 1940 cave Lasso, in the south-west of France, during their search for their dog. Found in this cave mural paintings dating back to prehistoric times.

The archaeologists of many important discoveries, and discussed on tirelessly over many years, for a particular site or what type of sites. In this way discovered the English archaeologist Howard Carter, in 1922 the tomb full of treasures for the ancient Egyptian King Tutankhamun.
Archaeologists use scientific methods to find the archaeological sites. The traditional way to discover all the archaeological sites in the region, are from the survey on foot. The antiquarians when using this method is spreading out from each other certain spaces, and walking directions drawn. Each individual looking for archaeological evidence, which is the other forward. Antiquarians and uses this method when they want to distinguish the region, which includes archaeological sites, from those where there is no such sites. For example, they can use this method, to ensure that archaeological sites exist for a certain region in the tops of the hills and not in the valleys.

And follow the ways of scientific archaeologists to assist in the detection of archaeological sites beneath the surface. The advent of air, for example, shows the differences in plant growth, which refers in turn to the archaeological evidence. Plants in the longer part of the field may be planted over the grave of old, or over an irrigation canal. The shorter plants in another part of the field, may be planted in the ground above the shallow old building or road. In addition, using metal detectors, to find out whether there were metal tools, already buried in the ground at a depth of not more than 180 cm.

Survey Site:
The first stage of the study carried out by archaeologists to a site, is a description of this site. Recorded as these detailed observations about the location of the site, and the type of archaeological evidence on the pillar surface. It also took photographs of this site.

The archaeologists mapping for most archaeological sites are discovered. The type of the map drawn on the importance of the site and the objectives of the study and the amount of time and money Almtoavrin. And baptizing them in some cases to map simplified after it is the process of measuring dimensions, whether the steps or using a tape measure. And used in other cases, special tools to clear the archaeological site carefully, and detailed mapping of him.

After drawing the map brings together some of the scientists who take on the surface of the archaeological site. Then they divide the surface into small squares, and examine every square on the unit. And then register on the map placements and found the tools. And can provide us with places who take superficial information on when and how to use the site.

Site excavation:
Archeologists excavating cautiously in search of buried materials in a process called archaeological exploration, and the method of archaeological excavations in part on the type of site. For example, can archaeologists who work in the cave, to divide the cave floor and the spot in front of him to the units in the form of small squares. And then, looking in each unit separately. Archaeologists have been digging in, working in the pavement of a temple, a trench in front of the sidewalk, and then supply the trench toward the ground adjacent to the pavement. In large sites could be restricted to exploration in certain parts of the site, and there are other considerations often decides to approach the archaeological excavations, such as climate and soils on the site.

And vary the tools that are used in the excavations between tractors and other heavy machinery and Mahaver small brushes. In some cases, the archaeological culling wire sieve the soil to get Findings small. In other cases, the analysis of soil in the laboratory, to discover seeds and pollen, or any chemical transformations, caused by human waste.
Under the water:
Uses the archaeologists working under water many ways, were adapted from Archaeology ground. The aerial photography reveals, above the clear water, the main parameters of the ports or cities submerged. The use Alsonari survey, which relies on sound waves to detect materials submerged under water. It uses divers, also special metal detectors detect metal materials. Mapping can be the soundtrack for the sites of submarines, or by divers who have machines for underwater photography. Archaeologists working at sites under water, and they are within the buffer chambers of the pressure, and suitable for work under water. And used balloons to raise the Findings to the large surface of the earth in order to study in a broader and more accurate.

Directory listing of the archaeological and retention:
The archaeologists describe and photograph and count the Findings, which they find them. They then classified into groups according to their types and locations. For example, maintains definitely pottery, sometimes called Daybreak or breakage of ceramic, of each unit of exploration, and each layer where, in separate groups, then transported to the laboratory field, to be cleaned and recorded by the information unit and the class from which they came.

We must make careful, in the laboratory field, to maintain the things made of metallic materials and wood. For example, you must remove the rust from metal objects without leading to any sabotage in the surface. The wood material saturated with water, the crack or lose shape when exposed to air, and therefore should be kept moist until able specialists, who are called restorers, from maintenance.

Explains how archaeologists Archaeological Findings?
Archaeologists follow three basic steps in the interpretation of the directory in which they find are: 1 - Category 2 - Date 3 - study and analysis.

Category:
Can archaeologists Findings of archaeological interpretation, if they could see patterns of spread tools in time and place. To reach these patterns they must first classification tools in groups each group containing Mosurat similar. The Statutes of the classification are: the qualitative and sequential (sequence Trzi).

Typology. Materials are classified into groups according to their forms, and methods of manufacture, and functions. And invited each of the Findings of this sort. For example, ceramic pots are all similar to be found in one location, one type, while the other pots are similar from another site another kind.

Sequential classification (relay Trzi). Resulted in materials with the same species, all in the series reflect changes in the model. These changes have either been acquired gradually over time, or as a result of the spread of civilization in other areas. In many cases, you must know the age of materials for the Identification of the first and last in the series.

History:
Archaeologists are different ways to determine the age old and Findings of these methods can be divided into two basic types are: 1 - the date the relative 2 - absolute dating.

History relative. Trying to figure out some of the submitted Findings relative to each other. That is the way history relative progress comparisons do not provide dates for real. For example, archaeologists can determine the relative ages of the bones that they might find in a site, measured through the content of the bones of the fluoride, because fluoride in the groundwater to replace other elements in the bones and increase over time. Thus, the older bone age are those that contain more than the amount of fluorine.

Absolute dating. Available Fields fixes the age of years. There are many ways to the history of the absolute. And the way they are used in each case is based mainly on the quality of the material determines its history.

The most widely used method to determine the history of the ancient remains of plants or animals or human beings is the radiocarbon dating. This method relies on the fact that living organisms are constantly absorbs two atoms of carbon, namely carbon 12 and carbon 14. Called carbon-14 atoms also radiocarbon, the atoms are unstable, and turns into nitrogen atoms. So when an object dies, the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon-12 decreases to a certain degree related to the proportion of well-known. As a result, archaeologists can calculate the age of a sample by measuring the carbon 12 and carbon 14 remaining in it. The traditional method used in measuring the precise ages to calculate the age of objects dating back to 50000 years old. The newer technology that uses the device known as Bmjl particles, it is an accurate way to calculate the age-old objects that are up to 60000 years old. This also applies to even the smallest samples. See: radiocarbon; particle accelerator.

Archaeologists have used history to find potassium argon ages of rock formations containing certain archaeological materials. The rocks containing these radioactive potassium-40, which turns into a gas argon 40 rose fixed. The scientists measured the amount of each component is then calculated age of the rock. This method has been used to date rock formations and the bones and tools found in eastern Africa. It was found that the age of the rock about a million and three quarters of a million years, suggesting that the bone tools and also of the same age.

The best way known to history is the history of wood rings of trees. The technology of the calculation of annual growth rings visible on the cross sections of trees felled. The archaeologists have matching rings form an old tree, found at a site, with workshops that old wooden materials to determine the age of the site. The history tree rings is the most accurate in all fields of history, but it is only used with wood materials that are not older than about 8000 years.

Study and analysis:

Archaeologists study the phenomena and the tools and analysis in order to obtain information such as: How and where made tools used. Sometimes scientists get information through direct experience. In the mid-eighties of the twentieth century by archaeologists from Cambridge, England, re-building a classic ship-pattern called Trerim and set sail by. In this way, learned a lot about the shipbuilding industry, the Greek art of navigation in ancient times. And tools and help to interpret the phenomena of social life that existed in ancient times. The size of houses that might indicate the number of people who lived in one house. Indicate the amount of fossils found in the graves and a value, the social class of the person buried.

The calendar Findings natural, exposing information, such as type of food that people eat and whether they produce crops or collecting wild plants. Can Mosurat natural that reveal patterns of ancient migrations. The presence of the seed of the grain curious about the region, for example, can reveal how the date of the transfer material from one place to another.

Archeologists have the archaeological evidence with specialists in other fields. Animal Flme help identify the bones of animals, and methods of slaughter that prevailed. As the scientists analyzed the plant seeds, to obtain information about the ancient agricultural activities. The archaeologists also works with other specialists such as geologists, architects and engineers. Intentionally and specialists in some cases to run the computers that facilitate the evaluation process and accelerate it to a large extent.

Raised (flag):. Archaeology. Also called the silent flag records. It is a study, but the march of Wonsan through documents in the ancient sites where the scientists, but rose through the technical methods to know the habits and life and achievements of the peoples in the past. This requires pinpoint accuracy through aerial photography Owaljs and drilling in the soil or electrical examination because clay burnt when it cools keeps Bmagnatisith. Or through the rules and analytical methods known Kalkrbun irradiated (article). N is not the only two affluent men searching for the effects of Ola died or has ceased to be mostly because of football or the weather or vandalism. Often, only wealthy Maibges his information in the least thing next Khqvp ancient earthenware or pottery or glass. Or through the waste and the hills and Cayman, but that makes them rich, but Threyon times, history and civilizations humanity. Archaeology is the study of materials and effects left by the former. And interested in the discovery and study of archaeological sites all over the world. Archaeologists and collect information to identify the lives of human beings since the existence of creation. In ancient times the Romans admired masterpieces of Greek and kept it to value the beautiful and considered a model for the taste of the age and templates for the formulation of statues. In the era of the Renaissance became a waste material symbols of the life of an ideal society aims to revive and live. The unidentified residues were attributed to the devil or it fuses and shrapnel fell from the sky. In the Age of Enlightenment antiques rid of superstitious theories and idealism, and become historical significance, and the Arabs, they were calling the old waste that does not know the origin of the word (Antiquities) ratio returned to the tribe extinct. Archaeology began as a hobby to enthusiasts collect artifacts, storing them and then set up private museums, and finally became the affairs of states and institutions. And archaeological studies means to disclose information relating to the past and helps in understanding the human activity and interaction with his environment and knowledge of intellectual trends and social conditions in a certain period of time. Archaeology broad knowledge and specializations overlapping and interrelated to a large degree, this science for the Arab world is relatively recent, but for other countries, especially Western has made long strides and concerned by the scientific institutions and universities since a very long time and the evidence that these universities have conducted field studies and theoretical and laboratory in the Arab region since the eighteenth century, and intensified efforts in the nineteenth century, while the Arab institutions throughout this period away from this arena, but it has begun developing programs and preparing cadres for research on the effects and publish their findings, presented to the public. Informing him Archaeology in the present and the future it is, in fact, contribute directly and even more than other sciences to clarify the cultural identity of any nation and any people of peoples can be said that the scale of civilization of any nation at the present time is not technological progress by itself, but is the extent of interest These nations and peoples of this civilization and its heritage

the spirt of the dead

The Egyptians believed that every person was composed of three essential elements: body, ba, and ka.

The body is the physical body and is unique to each individual. As a person gets older, so the body ages and changes - the Egyptians' expressed the idea of growing up as a process of "making changes" - and death is the last change.

Each person also has a ba. Though the ba is also unique to each individual, it is not a physical entity. Ba is sometimes translated as "manifestation," and can be thought of as the sum total of all the non-physical things that make a person different from others. In this sense, ba is very similar to what we call "personality" or "character." In the afterlife, the ba is represented as a bird, often with a human head.

Each person also has what is called a ka, or life-force, and it is the ka which is the difference between being alive and being dead. Unlike the ba, the ka is not individual, but common to all living people and the gods: in the beginning, the creator made ka, and ka enters each person's body at birth. Like the ba, the ka is not a physical entity, though it has a definite physical connection. In the plural, ka means "sustenance," linking it to the idea of food. In fact, ancient Egyptians would bring food to a dead person's tomb as an offering to his or her ka. But since the ka is not strictly physical, the food was not there to be literally eaten by the deceased or the deceased's ka, but it was the life-preserving force in the food that was being offered.

When a person dies, so the Egyptians believed, the ba and ka become seperated from the body, though they do not die. In the New Kingdom period and after, the Egyptians effected this seperation through the Opening of the Mouth ritual, in which the ba and ka are released to go to the next world.

In the next world, or underworld, the goal is to live with ones ka. In order for this to happen, the ka needs to be summoned back to the body and recognize it. But since the body is bound in its wrappings, it must rely on its ba to seek out its ka. During the nightime, when the sun god, Ra, is said to visit the underworld, the ba may roam freely in the underworld, or to popular places in this world, but it's anchor in this world, where it must return when Ra leaves the underworld, is the body, because together they are part of the same whole being.

In seeking a union with the ka, the ba must overcome many potential dangers in the underworld. But if it does succeed, it will reunite with the ka and form what is called akh. The Egyptian's believed that there are only three kinds of beings that inhabit the hereafter: the dead, the gods, and akhs. Akhs are those who have successfully made the transition to new life in the next world, where they live with the gods. The dead are those who have failed to make the transition. It is said that they have "died again," with no hope of renewed life.